Product Lifecycle

Introduction

To make the target market aware of the new product it is important to heavily promote it. A special introductory price may help push the product. The product is new to the mark and it takes some time after introduction for the product to become popular. 

Growth

As sales and profitability increase, the selling price may be reduced to make the product more attractive. Continued advertising around the brand name will help to sustain sales. The marketing team may consider expanding its distribution, to reach more consumers. Interest grows, it is new and popular and many units are sold, these sales grow until they reach a peak.

Maturity

The product has reached a stage were no new interest can be generated. The sales level of and profit is consistent as their is still a demand for the product. 

Decline

The product has lost it's novelty, fashion or it's seasonal appeal (common with products like Christmas cards) and sales began to drop as the demand for the product lessons. Sales decrease until the sales are negligible. At this point the product usually is changed or goes out of production. 

Product Lifecycle is most commonly expressed graphically

Protection

Companies need to protect their products, ideas and corporate identities. Legal precautions can be taken to protect these. Copyright and patents are taken. getting a product Copyrighted restricts unauthorized copying of your products or designs. A patent protects an idea giving the owner the sole rights to that idea. This idea then receives a registered status. A trade mark protects a slogan, name or logo of a company and stops other's from copying or using it.

Copyright - all rights reserved

registered trademark logo

Trade mark logo

CYMK and Special Colours

CYMK stand for Cyan Magenta Yellow and Black. These are the four printing colors. A combination of all of these different colors creates multiple colors. Black is used to add tone. 

The colors combine for all colors of the visible spectrum

Special Colors can be used industrially for an exact match and higher quality printing. These can be multiple shades and gradients of every color imaginable.

Just in Time Production

With just in time production, a business doesn't store stock and instead relies upon deliveries of raw materials and components to arrive exactly when they are needed. Instead of occasional large deliveries to a warehouse, components arrive just when they are needed and are taken straight to the factory floor.

The benefits of reduced warehouse costs must be balanced against the cost of more frequent deliveries and lost purchasing economies of scale from bulk buying discounts.

Preempting

In Graphics their are often occasions were the designer will need to produce a scale model or prototype for a client. This is an essential part of the manufacturing process. It allows the client to have an impression of the finished product and based on this they may want to make changes. Additionally prototypes will be needed to show investors. If the prototype is good they will be more likely to invest.

Different types of production

One-Off Production
is when only one product is made at a time. Every product is different so it is labour intensive. Products may be made by hand or a combination of hand and machine methods.
The product cost more to produce but can be sold for a higher price because of it's 'novelty value'

Batch Production
is when a small quantity of identical products are made. Batch production may also be labour intensive, but jigs and templates are used to aid production. Batches of the product can be made as often as required. The machines can be easily changed to produce a batch of a different product.This means that they can ensure they are always creating a product that is desired and has a good market. However whenever  a new products will be made time is wasted on re-configuring the machines.

Mass Production
is when hundreds of identical products are made, usually on a production line. Mass production often involves the sub-assemblie of numerous individual components. Parts may be bought from other companies. There is usually automated tasks and this enables a smaller number of workers to output more products. 

Continuous production
is when many thousands of identical products are made. The difference between this and mass production is that the production line is kept running 24 hours a day, seven days a week to maximise production and eliminate the extra costs of starting and stopping the production process. The process is highly automated and few workers are required. This means the product is normally very cheap to make. This saving is filtered down to consumers and means products produced on a continuous production line are normally cheaper.

Mechanisms

EFFORT- force applied
LOAD - the weight the force is acting on
FULCRUM - the pivot

First Class Levers
The fulcrum is between the load and the effort like a pair of scissors.

• The effort is applied by your hand at one end
• The load is the resistance against the cutting edge
• The fulcrum is the screw which holds the two halves together and allows for movement

Second Class Levers
The Load is applied between the effort and the fulcrum. The effort needed is less than the load because it is a lot nearer to the fulcrum.

other examples include nutcrackers

Third Class Levers
The effort is applies between the load and the fulcrum. The effort needed is greater than the load, but the amount of movement is multiplied. 

This is a simplified version, others include pumping a weight

Cranks 
Convert rotary movement into linear, like a bicycle.

Cams
Converts one type of movement into another.
eg/ a rotary cam converts rotary motion to reciprocating motion (up and down).

stage one and two in a simple mechanism

stage 3 and 4

Springs
Their are four main types of springs.

• resist extension
• resist compression
• resist radial movement
• resist twisting

resists radial movement

resists twisting

Linkages
transfers one mechanical motion to another. Most often used to convert cams to cranks or vice versa. An example is when a metal tool box opens and out pop a load of different levels inside.

one example of the many shapes of linkages.A Push-Pull mechanism

others include;

• Tongs

• Moving Wings

• Push-Pull

Gears
Similar to linkages they transfer one motion to another. The teeth of the gear wheels mesh with each other. They can make things go faster or slower and are used on bikes, hand whisks, bottle openers and toys.They can be used in 3D working models.

Chain and Sprocket
Mainly used in bicycles. As the pedals push the chain links with the sprocket and the wheel turns. This what makes it possible to cycle up hill comfortably.

example of graphically created chain and sprocket.

Pulley
A grooved wheel with a belt running through the groove. The belt stretches making it shock absorbent. They control how fast things run like cassettes and also make lifting heavy weights easier on things such as cranes.

If one wheel is bigger than the other the bigger one rotates more slowly but with more force. A twist in the belt makes the wheels turn in opposite direction.
These can also be digitally created for 3D graphical models.

Information and Communication Technology

ICT in graphic design and production

• Computer-aided design (CAD) is used to help design products and make virtual reality models
• Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is used to standardize and automate manufacturing of products

CAD and CAM consist of input devices, processes and output devices:

Input Device           Processes              Output devices

- keyboard - computer mouse - scanner - digital camera - graphics tablet - tracker ball

- CPU - operating system - memory  - software

- monitor  - printer  - plotter  - cutter  - milling machine  - stereo lithography machine

ICT speeds up the design and production process by allowing changes to be made more easily. Designers can build simulations showing what the finished product will look like and how it will behave.

Additional Info

Economic Consideration

When Designing a product costs must be carefully considered. The materials and Social costs will affect the profit generated. The cost of the product to buy and how much the manufacturer gains is called the net profit. The actual profit the manufacturer makes once materials, shipping, packaging and the actual creation of the product have been taken into account is called the gross profit. 

Planned Obsolescence
This is building in faults and purposefully decreasing how long the product will work efficiently in the interest of gaining profit. This ensures the product only has a limited time where it is fully functional designed to match the time when it might go out of fashion. This means the consumer is forced to buy a new one perhaps the latest model and the manufacturer generates more profit. This is continually done with phones and very notably present in companies like Apple forcing us to pay for a new model.

Useful Symbols

Plastic symbols

taken from my text book

Ergonomic and Anthropometrics

Anthropometrics is the study of the sizes of people in relation to products. For example, chairs used in schools need to be suitable for the average size of pupils in the schools.

Ergonomics is the relationship between people and the products which they use. Anthropometric data is used to help design products to meet ergonomic needs. Ergonomics also considers the force a person can apply, for example when using a tin opener, or the pedals of a car.

Moral issues

Moral and legal issues

Most designers will feel that they have a responsibility to make products that do not have too damaging an impact on the environment. This might mean that they seek to use:

• 'Green' technology uses materials, components and systems which limit the damage to the world's environment caused by pollution from industry, transport, etc.
• Renewable energy is energy that is replaceable or cannot be used up. Replaceable energy sources such as biomass can be used alongside the Earth's natural renewable sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric and tidal energy.
• Renewable materials are ones which we actively replace at least as fast as we use them up - eg paper from managed forests.
• Recycling and reusing. Recyclable materials such as aluminium cans and paper can be processed and used to produce new products. Products which are made using recycled materials are usually clearly marked.Reusable products are those which can be reused without the need for processing - for example, refillable milk bottles, scrap vehicle parts, or chips taken from an old circuit and reused in a new one.

Seeking to minimise negative effects on the environment in this way is called asustainable approach, because it does not damage the livelihood of future generations.

A designer may also want to think about the impact his or her products might have on people's religious or cultural susceptibilities. Certain images and slogans have the power to deeply shock or offend people, which will probably not encourage them to buy the product!

Legal constraints

There may also be legal constraints on the designer, as well as purely moral ones. For example the The Data Protection Act protects the consumer by limiting the access that other individuals or organisations have to private information about them, as well as the ways in which this information can be used. Companies are required to work to guidelines on how information is processed, recorded and stored. Limitations are also placed on the length of time data should be kept and how it is shared.

• You need to ensure that any graphics or logo do not offend minority groups
• consider the cultural implications

Quality Control

These are a series of checks a product must undergo to ensure it is of a marketable quality. This ensures it meets specific standards. Checks are conducted on the size, weight, color and construction of the product among other things. 

Testing needs to be undergone at every stage of development. This ensures that say a bottle top is being created in the production line with the correct thickness diameter etc

Quality Controls 

• color bar - check density and consistency of printed colors
• registration mark - ensure printing plates are aligned
• crop mark - make sure the product is cut to the correct size
• visual checks - make sure their is no breaks in the type face and all text is clear and legible

all these controls must be applied to every page

Safety Symbols

Safety symbols need to be clear and concise to convey important information clearly and quickly so that the recipient doesn't come to any harm.

• Red - says you can't do something as it may be dangerous
• Blue - mandatory action that must be done for safety
• Green - general safety sign like first aid signs
• Yellow - Warning, like wet floors
• Orange - toxic, chemical warnings like radioactive substance

Safety Standards

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is responsible for ensuring that schools and working environments are safe. Risk assessments are carried out so appropriate measures can be taken. This organisation have the power to close places that breach these regulations.

The BSI, British Standards Institution have devised checks to test that products are safe to use. They award a Kitemark to show that the product meets the relevant standards of the UK.  

BSI Kitemark incorporates the BSI letters into the logo

Health and Safety

In some environments their are many hazards regarding a manufacturing process. Machines can be dangerous and result in serious harm. I workshops many precautions are taken;

• Machine guards
• Fume extractors
• Protective wear like gloves, goggles and masks

When designing a product you have to take safety hazards into consideration for a product to be approved

Sustainability

The 6 R's

The 6 R's promote sustainability. This is important as quite a lot of the world resources are non-renewable. 

• Reuse - donate to charity, reuse water bottles etc
• Reduce - reduce waste and use less material for packaging
• Refuse - refuse bags and unnecessary packaging
• Recycle - make the product out of recyclable material
• Rethink - how you could approach the design differently using the other 5 R's?
• Repair - repair instead of re buying every time

Packaging is useful for a number of reasons however packaging has got to an excessive point and it is having  detrimental impact on the environment. When designing a product bear in mind the sustainability of the product. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Recycling

Advantages

• Recycled Products are cheaper
• Raw materials are not being used up

Disadvantages

• It is expensive to re process materials
• It cost money to collect recyclable materials from houses

Advantages and Disadvantages of Reusing

Advantages

• Cheaper for the consumer
• Less raw materials will be used

Disadvantages

• Less money being generated for the economy
• The Product may not work as well as a new one

Representing Data

Their are many different way's that we can represent data. You need to be aware that this data can be shown in either 2D or 3D as pie charts, line graphs and pictographs. 
You may need to identify the best way to express data. There a number of criteria that can be adhered to. 

• Qualitative data can be expressed as a pictographs whereas quantitative data cannot
• Line graphs are normally used when the data collected was over a period of time which is an important factor
• Pie charts are often used to show the varying proportions of peoples views

Signage

Signs and symbols tell us information and convey it quickly through pictorial representations. 

• road signs

• information signs at railway stations

• warning signs

• washing symbols on clothes

Signs and symbols give information. They are used instead of words. Examples include:

Red triangle = risk/danger

Corporate Identity

This is a commercial logo which represents what the company is all about. The corporate identity is tailored to represent the values of the company and to appeal to the target market.

Example Exam question which came up previously...

What do the colors of the P&O Ferry company logo suggest about the company?


Potential answers could include;

• Red, white and blue are common flag color representing global travels
• Red, white and blue show a proud nationalist company
• Yellow shows a proud and happy company
• Blue has a calming effect

Schematic Maps

You may be asked to create a schematic map. They are just highly simplified maps with a key, here are some examples below; 

Campus

Underground

Flowcharts and Feedback Loops

Flow Charts show the processes of each stage during manufacturing a products  they are important for quality control. Yes goes underneath a question box and no to the right of it. A feed back loop is part of the question. If the answer is no the flowchart loops back round to a previous process. 

	All flowcharts begin with the start symbol. This shape is called a terminator.
	Inputs to the system are represented by a parallelogram box.
	A process box is used when there is an instruction that must be carried out. This may be an action or it may be a command to tell the micro controller to wait before continuing
	A diamond box is used when a decision needs to be made. This might include comparing the input states or comparing a count to a set limit. The outcome of the decision must be either yes or no. These can be in combination used to act as logic gates.
	Outputs to the system are represented by a parallelogram box.
	All flowcharts end with the end symbol. This shape is called a terminator.

CAD CAM

Computer-aided design (CAD)

These make it easier for designers to produce and idea that looks realistic.

Advantages

• In large-scale production, the results are consistent (always the same).
• Enables very high accuracy levels in large-scale production.
• Usually speeds up production of low-volume products.

Disadvantages

• The software itself is expensive so initial costs are high.
• Can be slower than traditional methods for one-off or low-volume production.
• Staff need to be trained how to use the software and machinery, which adds to costs.

Computer-aided manufacture (CAM)

Computers control the manufacturing process and are sent instruction via CAD. They can work continuously to produce products. 

Advantages

• In large-scale production, the results are consistent (always the same).

• Enables very high accuracy levels in large-scale production.

• Usually speeds up production of low-volume products.

Disadvantages

• The software itself is expensive so initial costs are high.

• Can be slower than traditional methods for one-off or low-volume production.

• Staff need to be trained how to use the software and machinery, which adds to costs.

Nets

Nets are also known as surface developments they show how a 3D container can be manufactured from an individual sheet of material.

Working Drawings

3rd Orthographic Projection To British Standards
Working drawings are intended to enable someone other than the designer to make
a product. For this reason they have to be clear and accurate. Various conventions
and common symbols are used to help achieve this.

Four views of an object are combined into one image. The plan view (the top), the front elevation and the side elevation (the front and the sides of the object).

All of the different view combine in diagram 2 to make an orthographic projection of the object

This symbol shows which angle it is do not get it confused with the first angle orthographic projection

British Standards
The overall dimensions of the object or structures are drawn in a particular way,
following a set of British Standard conventions, Briefly;
● dimension lines are placed to the side of the drawings.
● projection lines indicate the parts of the drawing the dimensions relate to.
● projection lines should not touch the drawing of the object or structure.
● dimension and projection lines should be half the thickness of the lines 
of the object or structure.


Self Assembly Drawings
These are the diagrams that might come with flat pack kits from IKEA. They show all the stages in constructing an item and normally have a key. Each number references something on the diagram and gives you further instructions. These make it easier to build the product and allow easier transportation of goods and easier manufacturing as the company don't have to build it themselves. It does mean that the consumer gets the product at a cheaper price however if it constructed incorrectly this could lead to it breaking and being ineffective. 

Sectional Drawings
These enlarge a small section of a drawing. It allows for possibly a mechanism to be viewed in more detail. Internal structures can be represented this way and it allows for a deeper understanding of how individual parts work.

Exploded Diagrams
These demonstrate how and object fits together. They are created;

• to scale
• accurate expression of object
• construction lines must be left on to show how it was drawn

Thee are quicker than perspective drawings so are used often.

The construction lines help demonstrate the alignments of all of the different components. 

Scale Drawings
Draw to scale means all of the dimensions of the object are the same in relation to each other  However the actual size of the drawing may be bigger or smaller than the real object. This is shown as a ration.
1:2 means that every measurement in the real object is twice the size of in the drawing. For example for every 1 cm in the real object their are 2. 

Plans
Often used in architectural drawings. They allow a birds eye view of say a house to be expressed. They show scale representations of the objects. This is known as a floor plan.

all doors are shown by arc - this shows their opening space.

Pictorial Drawings

One Point Sketches
One point perspective has a single vanishing point. All of the guide lines from the drawing meet at this one point. You may need to replicate drawings like this or identity which perspective has been used. 

Vanishing point is located on the 'horizon line'

Two Point Sketches
These have two vanishing points located on the same horizon line. The image is formed below them and any vertical lines are perpendicular to the horizon line.

two vanishing points creates a more realistic effect

Isometric
Normally isometric grid paper is used to create these drawings. They normally use 30 degree angles to create a 3D object to scale. 

Presentation

Computer software has a range of uses. Word processing and editing documents appearances are essential Graphic Design skills. 'Word' is one o the most widely used. Your are able to save, print, cop, paste and edit documents. Many different font's are available and clip art, text and picture formatting. 

The Four Text alignments

Left alignments

Right alignments

Center alignment

Justified is the alignment that spaces out the text to leave it in a neat box shape at the ends.  I have applied this to the top information of the document.

Presentation is vital when working with clients. It can be used to conceptualize a final idea of a design. The client can then decide if they ant to make changes to the product. This is easy to achieve on a computer as things can be edited easily. ICT can be used to make a product really aesthetically appealing and please the client so they will buy/approve the designs for the product.

Encapsulated PostScript

An image file format that is compatible with PostScript printers and is often used for transferring files between various graphics applications. EPS files will print identically on all PostScript-compatible printers and will appear the same in all applications that can read the PostScript format.

Lettering For Purpose

Font should be appropriate for it's purpose  you may need to design a font or logo and it should be compatible with it's intended target market. 

Serif - a traditional and expensive looking font used to evoke a sense of quality about the product

suggests a high quality product

San Serif - 'cheaper' looking font appeals to a cost conscious market. 

More garish suggest a low quality 'trashier' product

Decortaive - has been graphically manipulated to represent what it stands for.

Florist logo

Designers

Designers influence new graphics styles constantly, Their are some very famous designers you need to know about and have come up in all of the Graphics papers ever.

Harry Beck
Created the schematic underground maps for the London Underground. They are highly simplified maps that are easy to understand and interpret.

Alberto Alessi
Owns Alessi factory that produces Home ware products. Employs other designers to create  innovative designs such as Philippe Starck's Lemon juicer.

Margret Calvert and Jock Kinnear
Designed the countries signage system. The road signs you see indicating hazards and giving directions have been designed by them to be as easy as possible to read and understand.

Wally Olins
One of the biggest practitioners in corporate identity.He creates bran identity logo's for major corporations. He designed the P&O logo and the logo for the Olympics 2012.

Use bought in components where appropriate to fasten, seal, hang, join, bind and index

Click Rivets

1. In two parts
2. keep two materials together like coroflute
3. Measurements can vary
4. fix together with a 'click'
5. hard to pull apart

this clearly shows the stages of fastening a click rivet, in the last diagram it is fully fasten. Undoing it is hard as the bottom has expanded larger than the hole.

Eyelets/Grommets

1. Reinforce a hole to stop damage
2. Made with two halves pressed together by a dies cutter

This shows the two parts and the finished product. They are a bit like ear stretchers in a sense but for holes in easily damaged materials like paper

Paper Fasteners/Split pins

1. go through two pieces of paper
2. Can be used in rotating mechanisms

Velcro

1. Brand name for hook and loop fasteners
2. One side has many tiny loops and the other hooks
3. These attach together 

This is very close up but shows you how the hooks and loops work

Treasury tags

1. Comprised of a piece of string with two plastic ends
2. fasten two pieces of paper together
3. This is the fastening method used in exams if you use extra paper
4. Sneaky hint, if you want to look at one in the exam just ask for extra paper

be aware that the following materials can be used to join...

• double sided-sticky tape
• double sided sticky pads
• press fit (Velcro)

Craft tools

Scalpel/Craft Knife
Sharp knife used for cutting card and paper. Should be used with a mat and safety rule

Craft Mat
This is a thick mat made out of cut resistance material. It allows surfaces to remain protected and has guid lines to help cut to ertain measurments and in a straight line. Often used with a scalpel.
Scissors
Double bladed, with a handle. Used to cut out shapes with complicated edges. Less sharp and dangerous than a scalpel because of the way the blade fold together.

Rotary Cutters
Used to cut straight lines - a perforated cutter can create a perforated edge in this way.

Don't be fooled by the name rotary cutter cut in straight lines similar to domestic pizza cutters

Compass Cutters/Circle Cutters
Used to cut circles, curves and arches on thin paper or thin card. 

This cut it's circles and you can adjust the radius, it looks like a mathematical compass but their is a sharp blade/point instead of a pencil

Fret Saw/Scroll Saw
Good for cutting woods and plastics into intricate shapes. Similar to a coping saw which is a handheld tool that can cut woods at different angles.

This is a FRET / SCROLL saw and is semi-automatic with a similar blade to a coping saw.

hand held coping saw

Die Cutter

Die cutting is used to make multiple, identical shapes.

It works in a similar way to a biscuit cutter.

A shaped blade called a die is used to cut material. The material to be cut is placed under the die and the die is lowered.

For creasing, blunt blades are used. The blade does not cut through the material but creases it. This is useful for materials that need to be folded such as surface developments or popup mechanisms.

Creasing Bar
Line up the paper with the creasing guidelines of the machine, the machine creases the paper with out scoring  This compresses the creased area making it stronger rather than than scoring which weakens the fold.

Adhesives

Adhesives are used to join materials by glueing. Different types of adhesives are used for different materials - for example, if a product is going to be used outside, then a waterproof adhesive should be used.

There are different ways adhesive can be applied

• Tape (double sided has an adhesive layer on both sides)
• Spray 
• Glue gun

PVA (polyvinyl acetate)	General purpose woodwork glue. Some PVA adhesives are water resistant.
Synthetic resin	A strong water-resistant glue for woodwork. It needs to be mixed up immediately before use.
Epoxy resin	For joining metals and plastics. It is waterproof but must be mixed up immediately before use.
Contact adhesive	For joining polystyrene and fabrics. Also useful for fixing plastic laminates to a wooden base.
Acrylic  cement	For the joining of acrylic and some other types of plastics. The adhesive "melts" the surface of the plastic and fuses it together.